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The Encyclopedia of Adam Schall von Bell
| Glimpses | Matteo Ricci | Johann Schreck | Adam Schall | Ruminations |
Xu Guangki (1562-1633), a Chinese statesman and astronomer and director of the Astronomical Bureau in Beijing, called upon Schreck and Schall to reform the calendar and to undertake a massive enterprise to publish updated astronomical and mathematical texts in Chinese. The astronomical work that resulted involved many Chinese collaborators, cultivated in both science and Confucianism, who made original contributions to the scientific effort and protected Schreck and Schall and the other Europeans within the Imperial Chinese Court. This joint publishing effort, which continued for the rest of the century, signals the birth and early modern high point of international relations between Europe and modern China.
Xu, an advocate for the Jesuits within the Court and also a financial supporter, with his granddaughter Candida (1607-80), printed about 80 books on astronomy and philosophy. Xu was assisted by Li Zhizao (died in 1630) and Wang Yinglin. After his death, Xu was succeeded by Li Tianjing (1579-1659). Li was nominally the director of the Office of the Calendar, but Schall effectively ran its operations until it was absorbed directly into the Office of Astronomy, which Schall officially directed after 1644. Schall’s directorship inaugurated a long period in which Europeans occupied the post, ending in 1826.
To adapt European astronomy into a Chinese context, the Jesuits in China sought to provide tools – such as calculation tables -- to simplify the work of Chinese mathematicians: to offer Chinese scientists not only explanations of celestial movements and eclipses, but also the underlying arithmetical, geometric, and mathematical techniques. Thus Chinese astronomers would augment traditional algebraic techniques with classical European geometrical models. A third tool was shortly added when John Napier invented logarithm tables, which were adopted by Kepler around 1620 and in 1633 explained in a Chinese work by Rho.
With the involvement of Schall and Rho, after the death of Schreck, the writing and translation project accelerated, eventually resulting in the publication of the Chongzhen lishu, which is to say the calendar of the reign of Chongzhen (1628-1644). Thus the first nucleus of astronomical texts, known as the Chongzhen lishu, came to be printed in Chinese. Schall understood that Chinese mathematicians would need training in all of the exact sciences to carry out their research and calculations, and so the Jesuits published works in mathematics, geometry, and trigonometry. Schall assembled a group of translators, mostly composed of Chinese mathematicians from the Imperial Astronomical Office, and a group of woodblock carvers, because the works were printed with wood-blocks not only for the illustrations but for each single page of text. During that period Schall’s fortunes varied, yet eventually he became not only a renowned scholar but also a trusted advisor to successive emperors.
In 1644, Manchu soldiers invaded Beijing. Schall actively participated in the defense of Beijing, creating a cannon foundry in order to repel the Manchu assault (two of his writings survive from this period on the construction of cannons and on the technique of firearms). Yet when the Manchus overcame the Ming emperor’s forces and the Qing dynasty began, Schall managed to win the trust of the new emperor, Shunzhi (1644-1661). In 1645, immediately after his installation, the first Qing emperor, Shunzi, appointed Schall as head of the Bureau of Astronomy. The Jesuit then re-edited the Chongzhen lishu, reorganizing its structure. New texts were prepared, and previous ones rewritten, canceling every trace of the previous dynasty. The new books, still in manuscript, were in every instance presented to the emperor for his approval. Thus, during the Qing dynasty, Schall revised the Chongzhen lishu, and republished an elaborated edition under the name of Xinfa Lishu (1645), which is his celebrated astronomical encyclopedia.
The name of Galileo is first mentioned in the Chinese language in Schall's encyclopedia: "After the death of Tycho the telescope was invented, thanks to which the smallest stars in the sky became visible. Thirty years ago Chia-li-léo made a new map of the sky and noted something that had escaped the notice of astronomers for thousands of years…"
The 30 titles that make up Schall's encyclopedia gather the Jesuit-Chinese scientific works, written in Chinese in the mid 17th-century, containing the ideas of Galileo, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Kepler and Napier; the use of fundamental scientific instruments like the telescope; the concepts of latitude and longitude; perspective and optics. Titles include the first description of the telescope written in Chinese and presented to the emperor, and the first Chinese history of European astronomy, which includes the first mention of the name of Galileo in Chinese.
In 1653, Schall received honors which conferred upon him various titles, ratified by Imperial decree, among which were “The Religious Master Who Comprehends the Mysteries.” In 1658, Schall accepted the title of “Mandarin of the First Rank,” by virtue of which the three preceding and three succeeding generations of his line were elevated into the ranks of the aristocracy (the continuity of rank forward requiring the adoption of a male child). Nevertheless, in 1664, soon after the death of the emperor Shunzi, Schall was accused of propagating heresy and spreading false calculations concerning the calendar by a group of powerful mandarins. The following year he was condemned to death, but was ultimately pardoned by the emperor Kanxgi. Schall died and was buried in Beijing in 1666.
| Glimpses | Matteo Ricci | Johann Schreck | Adam Schall | Ruminations |
Do you have a great quote for this page? Let me know! (If used, a new quote is worth 1 point extra credit)
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HSCI 3013. History
of Science to 17th century |
spellcheck.net | wordcounter.net
Many thanks to the pedagogical model developed in Mythology and Folklore and other online courses by Laura Gibbs, which have been an inspiration for this course.
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This course is currently undergoing major reconstruction to bring it into alignment with the new version of the course at Janux |
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